Diagnostic Techniques and Epidemiological Methods for Parasites in Beekeeping: Considerations and Perspectives.

Abstract

Pests contribute significantly to the loss of <i>Apis mellifera</i> colonies in a multifactorial context that includes viruses, pesticides, nutritional deficiencies, and climate change. This review critically summarises diagnostic techniques (morphological, molecular, automated) and epidemiological methods for the main parasites (<i>Varroa destructor</i>, <i>Vairimorpha</i> spp., <i>Acarapis woodi</i>, <i>Tropilaelaps</i> spp., <i>Aethina tumida</i>, <i>Lotmaria passim</i>, <i>Crithidia mellificae</i>), evaluating trade-offs between sensitivity, specificity, cost, and practicality. There is no universal gold standard; the methodological choice must be contextualised. A decision-making framework structured on four pillars (Primary objective, Resource constraints, Epidemiological context, Ethics/Regulatory) is proposed to guide optimal selections, with application examples and testable hypotheses for future validation. Limitations of emerging technologies (reduced accuracy in the field for AI and LAMP), gaps in multi-pathogen synergies (including viruses and bacteria), interactions with pesticides, and climate impacts with explicit uncertainties are discussed. A global perspective and a One Health approach are adopted, identifying research priorities for integrated diagnostic tools, validated predictive models, and sustainable strategies.