Glanders: Historical military use and potential bioterrorism concern.

Abstract

, the etiological agent of glanders, is a zoonotic bacterium primarily affecting equines and occasionally humans. Although rare today, it remains endemic in certain regions and poses a potential threat to both animal and public health. Historically,was among the earliest biological agents used in warfare, and its classification as a Category B bioterrorism agent underscores the need for ongoing vigilance. This review is warranted due to several factors: the limited availability of effective treatments or vaccines, the pathogen's ability to cause severe systemic infections, its diagnostic challenges, and its re-emerging status in some parts of the world. Moreover, growing concern over its potential misuse in bioterrorism highlights the urgency for a comprehensive understanding of the bacterium. The aim of this review is to provide a consolidated overview ofand glanders, emphasizing pathogenesis, clinical manifestations in animals and humans, diagnostic methods, differential diagnoses, and current prevention strategies. It also discusses the historical use ofas a biological weapon and its implications for modern biosecurity. By synthesizing existing knowledge, this review contributes to a more structured understanding of glanders and highlights knowledge gaps that require further research. Raising awareness of this neglected zoonosis is essential to strengthen surveillance, improve diagnostic capabilities, and inform policies aimed at mitigating future outbreaks or misuse.