Insights into canine reproductive health: ultrasonographic evaluation of the uterus-a review.

Abstract

This review provides a comprehensive exploration of the applications and advancements in ultrasonographic techniques for evaluating the uterus in domestic canines. Conventional grey-scale ultrasonography remains a cornerstone for detecting anatomical and pathological changes, while emerging modalities such as Doppler ultrasonography, contrast-enhanced ultrasonography (CEUS), and ultrasound elastography (UEl) have expanded diagnostic capabilities by providing insights into vascularity, tissue stiffness, and microvascular perfusion. Recent innovations in three-dimensional (3D) and four-dimensional (4D) ultrasonography have further revolutionized imaging by enabling detailed visualization of fetal anatomy and dynamic intrauterine processes. While these techniques have been extensively studied in human and veterinary medicine for various organs, their application to the canine uterus, both non-pregnant and pregnant, remains underexplored. This review bridges gaps in existing literature by incorporating findings from related fields and outlining future directions for research to improve the diagnosis and management of reproductive uterine disorders in dogs.