Compressive Behavior of 316L Stainless Steel Lattice Structures for Additive Manufacturing: Experimental Characterization and Numerical Modeling.

Abstract

Lattice structures produced by additive manufacturing are increasingly used in lightweight, load-bearing applications, yet their mechanical performance is strongly influenced by geometry, process parameters, and boundary conditions. This study investigates the compressive behavior of body-centered cubic (BCC) 316L stainless steel lattices fabricated by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). Four relative densities (20%, 40%, 60%, and 80%) were achieved by varying the strut diameter, and specimens were built in both vertical and horizontal orientations. Quasi-static compression tests characterized the elastic modulus, yield strength, energy absorption, and mean force, while finite element simulations reproduced the deformation and hardening behavior. The experimental results showed a direct correlation between density and mechanical properties, with vertically built specimens performing slightly better due to reduced processing defects. Simulations quantified the effect of strut-joint rounding and the need for multi-cell configurations to closely match the experimental curves. Regardless of the boundary conditions, for a density of 20%, simulating a single cell underestimated stiffness because of unconstrained strut buckling. For higher densities and thicker struts, this sensitivity to boundary conditions strongly decreased, indicating the possibility of using a single cell for shorter simulations-a point rarely discussed in the literature. Both experiments and simulations confirmed Gibson-Ashby scaling for elastic modulus and yield strength, while the tangent modulus was highly sensitive to boundary conditions. The combined experimental and numerical results provide a framework for the reliable modeling and design of metallic lattices for energy absorption, biomedical, and lightweight structural applications.